Geoffrey Gorham, Philosophy of Science: A Beginner's Guide (Bloomsbury: Oneworld Publications, 2009), 224 pp.
Copyright (c) 2025 Şeyma Keskin (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Pragmatic Verificationism in Hillary Putnam
This article attempts to explore Hilary Putnam's understanding of pragmatic verificationism, which plays a significant role in his philosophy, within the context of his critiques of metaphysical realism. Although Putnam, who presents a new perspective on the concept of truth, does not explicitly state that he has constructed it within the framework of pragmatic principles, we argue in this study. Upon examining his thoughts, it can be seen that his later ideas, in particular, are consistent with a pragmatic philosophical understanding. Putnam's critique of metaphysical realism, along with logical positivism's critiques of verificationism and Popper's critiques of induction, shape his approach to truth and verificationism. Based on this, after presenting these critiques, we attempt to present the Putnamian version of pragmatic verificationism. In short, our study argues that Putnam is a pragmatic verificationist when it is recognized that he has introduced a new dimension to the concept of truth within the framework of his critiques of metaphysical realism.
Verificationism, pragmatism, metapysical realism, philosophy of science, Hillary Putnam
Copyright (c) 2025 Ramazan Bayraktar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Influence of al-Ghazali on the Use of Logic
Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) represents one of the most important turning points in the history of logic in the Islamic world. He emphasized logic in particular in his efforts to remedy the shortcomings he observed in the traditions of Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence and Kalam (Islamic Theology) and to make these sciences more systematic. Al-Ghazali's terminology, views, and conceptualizations were influential in the beginning of the use of logic as a methodology of thought in Islamic sciences. Al-Ghazali's work in the field of logic, primarily directed toward practical goals in the religious sciences, presented a comprehensive example of applied logic that had not been seen before. He offered a wide range of suitable examples that could appeal to the minds of those engaged in religious sciences. His emphasis on the importance and value of logic helped spread it throughout the Islamic world and incorporate it into the madrasa curriculum. He ended the debates on logic in Islamic philosophy, thereby establishing a legitimate foundation for logic in the Islamic world. Thus, logic became an important part not only of philosophy but also of all religious sciences, especially theology. Many Islamic thinkers, especially theologians, benefited from logic to acquire knowledge.
Al-Ghazali, Islamic sciences, Islamic theology, logic, methodology
Copyright (c) 2025 Halil İmamoğlugil (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Theistic Arguments and an Evidentialist Approach in Richard Swinburne
This study examines how Richard Swinburne epistemically justifies belief in God through probabilistic reasoning. Rejecting the claim that classical theistic arguments can yield metaphysical certainty, Swinburne bases belief not on deductive proof but on high probability, using Bayesian probability theory to defend the rationality of theism. The study first outlines the conceptual and historical background of evidentialism and then situates Swinburne’s position within this context. While he treats the ontological argument with caution and excludes it from his cumulative case, his analysis centers on the cosmological, teleological, moral, and religious experience arguments, which together form a cumulative inductive case. Examined alongside Reformed epistemology and contemporary critiques, Swinburne’s approach presents theistic belief as a rationally defensible commitment grounded in probabilistic reasoning and epistemic responsibility.
Philosophy of religion, evidentialism, probabilistic epistemology, cumulative case argument, Richard Swinburne
Copyright (c) 2025 Esma Aygün Yakın (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Influence of Feuerbach on Freud’s Philosophy of Religion
This article analyzes the influence of Ludwig Feuerbach on Sigmund Freud’s understanding of religion within a psycho-anthropological framework. By interpreting theology as the “externalization of human essence,” Feuerbach conceives God as the exalted symbol of human qualities such as love, justice, and wisdom; thus, religion emerges not as a supernatural but as a human phenomenon. Freud translates this framework into psychoanalysis: God becomes the unconscious projection of the father image and repressed desires from childhood; religion is “an illusion grounded in wish-fulfillment” and a cultural defense mechanism. From the totemic triad of guilt-prohibition-sacredness to the fear of death and longing for justice, many of Freud’s central themes appear as clinical counterparts to Feuerbach’s anthropological intuitions. Both thinkers acknowledge the historical and functional significance of religion, yet they diverge in locating its source: Feuerbach emphasizes conscious projection, while Freud focuses on unconscious dynamics. Freud’s theory of religion transfers Feuerbach’s anthropological core onto a psychodynamic plane, reducing modern humanity’s relationship with God from metaphysics to psychology.
Philosophy of Religion, Feuerbach, Freud, religion, anthropology
Copyright (c) 2025 Kibar Gürbüz (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
This article examines Adorno’s aesthetic theory within the framework of his critique of instrumental reason, discussing the critical function of art in modern society. According to Adorno, Enlightenment thought failed to realize its ideal of emancipation and instead transformed reason into an instrument of domination. In this process, knowledge became a tool of control rather than freedom, and the relation between subject and object was reduced to the principle of identity. Against this reduction, Adorno emphasizes the resistant power of art. Art transcends the empirical world, making the non-identical visible and giving voice to suppressed differences. Within this context, the concept of mimesis is reinterpreted beyond its classical meaning of imitation as a mode of non-conceptual relation with the world. Art thus transcends the utilitarian framework of instrumental reason and establishes a negative dialectic that suggests truth without directly representing it. Aesthetic experience, in this sense, is not merely sensory pleasure but an intellectual shock and a practice of liberation. The article concludes that Adorno’s conception of art constitutes a form of critical consciousness against the rationality crisis of modernity.
Adorno, instrumental reason, mimesis, aesthetic experience, negative dialectics, autonomy of art
Copyright (c) 2025 Merve Nur Sezer (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Digital Transformation of the Family in the Shadow of Artificial Intelligence
Throughout history, science and technology have sometimes generated new thought structures and life forms based on their own epistemological and ontological foundations, while at other times, even ideologies in theoretical contexts have acted as determining forces directing scientific production and technological developments. With the Industrial Revolution, mechanization brought about industrial living spaces and urbanization, while also affecting values, social structures, and family formations. Today, with the information revolution, cybernetics and information technologies are forming a new social model and family structure through the paradigm of data/information. The issue of objectification, which replaces the ethical subjectivity of the modern human constructed by the information world, constitutes a significant problem area in philosophical anthropology. In this study, the philosophical and ethical issues and problems that form the basis of the information revolution's individual, family and social transformation, and the reflections of artificial intelligence technologies that form the basis of change and transformation on the family are discussed in interdisciplinary contexts.
The philosophy of information, artificial intelligence, family, digitalization, ethics
Copyright (c) 2025 Nesibe Kantar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
This section includes Generic Pages and Table of Content
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Russel and Frege on the Question of Definition in Logic
In the 20th century, beginning with Frege, logical thinking brought fundamental criticism to Aristotle's logical tradition, which had been practiced for centuries. In this context, Russell emerged as an important thinker alongside Frege in establishing new logical thinking. This study examines Frege and Russell's views on definition in logical thinking. In this vein, the study also discusses the limits and functions that modernity has brought to logical thinking. Frege and Russell's explanations of the concepts of meaning and reference have determined the course of the philosophy of language. Frege's distinction between meaning and reference set him apart from other logicians. According to Frege, meaning is a form of presentation of the reference of a name. Frege defined reference as the object to which a name refers. Russell focused on the problem of meaning and reference discussed by Frege. In this context, Russell's 1905 article “On Denoting,” considered one of the most important philosophical articles of the 20th century, added depth to this discussion. Our study aims to evaluate the direction of logical thought that emerged in Russell and the character and analytical power of Frege's logic by comparing them in a more specific context. In particular, the ideas put forward by the two thinkers on meaning and reference have been compared.
Russell, Frege, logic, definition, meaning, reference
Copyright (c) 2025 Mehmet Aydın (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Book Lambda of Aristotle’s Metaphysics is one of the most important compositions in the history of philosophy, as it contains Aristotle’s most comprehensive account of God. Despite the work’s importance in Aristotle’s corpus, as well as being a key event in Ancient Philosophy, it is nearly absent from the rich tradition of philosophical commentaries in Late Antiquity. Apart from Alexander of Aphrodisias’ systematic commentary on the Metaphysics Lambda, though modestly called a ‘paraphrase’, is in fact an influential reinterpretation of Aristotle’s text at greater length than the original, composed by him. Themistius’ paraphrase of Metaphysics Lambda is known that had a significant impact on subsequent medieval authors in the Arabic and Hebrew worlds. The translation you will read is a commentary on the first and second chapter of Book Lambda by Themistius. The Greek original commentary of Lambda was lost, and after the Arabic translation, it was transferred to Latin and Hebrew.
Aristotle, Themistius, Metaphysics, Book Lambda, substance, element, change
Copyright (c) 2025 Themistius (Author); İlyas Altuner (Translator) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
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Copyright (c) 2022 Entelekya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
An Information Ethics Theory in the Context of Information Philosophy: Flourishing Ethics
Like all other inventions, advances in the field of digital computational technologies, which we will briefly describe as the information world, have also played an essential role in humanity life. These advances have brought some ethical debates to our individual and social life, as well as the industrial benefit obtained by the digital and analog technological developments that positively or negatively affect and transform all economic and cultural paradigms surrounding human life. The branch of the philosophy of information, which questions the basic issues and discussions of the information age through philosophical paradigms, deals with the ontological, epistemological, and axiological problems of the information age. The subject deals with the analysis and new results of an Aristotelian information ethics theory, which is a theory first proposed to the world of thought in the field of the philosophy of information. The main reason for dealing with this subject in the thesis is to examine the scientific, technological, and philosophical bases of the information revolution.
Information ethics, philosophy of information, entropy, flourishing ethics, cybernetics and technology, artificial intelligence.
Copyright (c) 2022 Nesibe Kantar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Concept of Active Power in the Philosophy of Thomas Reid
The article focuses on the concept of active power as an ability that activates the agent, who is the implementer of common sense principles in Thomas Reid's philosophy. Reid argues that the use of active power in the process of realizing the principles of common sense in action is very important for the morality of the agent. While the correct use of active power ensures the emergence of honorable and moral actions, the wrong use of this power causes the emergence of evil and immorality. For this reason, Reid defines the concept of active power as a distinctive feature of humans, such as the ability to think. In addition, Reid argues that people are conscious of the existence of their active power. Thus, people are also aware of their own limits. By being aware of other people's active powers, they can regulate their moral relationships. After briefly summarizing Reid's philosophical method in the article, the relationship between common sense principles and active power, which are presented as two important components of action, is discussed.
Active power, action, common sense, agent, Thomas Reid.
Copyright (c) 2022 Zehra Eroğlu (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Contemporary Art Criticism of Jean Baudrillard
The idea and practice of art, which started to change in the modern period, continued its metamorphosis in the post-modern period. Contemporary art, which was handled by many philosophers and thinkers, was called trans-aesthetic by Jean Baudrillard. According to Baudrillard, art has lost its meaning by penetrating every aspect of life in the post-modern age. In other words, art has become the transfer of images that mean nothing by becoming trans-aesthetic. At this stage, no object can be said to be beautiful or ugly.
Baudrillard, contemporary art, criticism, trans-aesthetics, post-modernism.
Copyright (c) 2022 Merve Nur Türksever Sezer (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
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Hilary Putnam's View on Relativism in Context of Truth and Rationality
Relativism has been discussed concerning the concepts of truth and rationality in Hilary Putnam's thoughts. Putnam suggested that truth is formed by idealizing rational acceptability. Rational acceptability is a criterion that depends on cognitive virtues and can change with human development. The relation of the sciences to the concept of conformity shows that our knowledge of the world presupposes values. Putnam considers relativism an inconsistent view in the sense that justification for truth is up to the individual. He says that at least some value judgments should be objective. He argues that some conceptual truths are not descriptions of reality but are indisputably true. Here, he thinks that we have objectivity without an object.
Putnam, relativism, truth, rationality, rational acceptability, inconsistency, objectivity, values.
Copyright (c) 2022 Gülizar Akdemir (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
An Analysis of Philosophy Questions and Knowledge
The subject of this study is a philosophical question and an analysis of knowledge. Philosophical questions are questions that almost everyone deals with in daily life. Philosophy-making activity is a fundamental field of study that belongs to man and his essence. Those who are familiar with these questions have become philosophers. Philosophers are concept friends and have built knowledge by adhering to the use of language. Philosophical knowledge, above all, has a systematic, consistent and logical aspect. This discipline, in which questions are more important than answers, formed the basis of other fields. Philosophical thought laid the basic discipline's groundwork, such as science, religion, politics, and art. In this context, the study will include essential views on the philosophical question and the value of knowledge.
Philosophical thought, philosophical knowledge, philosophi-cal question, philosophical value, analysis.
Copyright (c) 2022 Hüseyin Subhi Erdem, Mehmet Aydın (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Philosophy of the Self in Muhammad Iqbal
Muhammad Iqbal sees each person as the “self” with an independent identity, and God as the “Absolute Self”. The human experience of the self is a constantly changing experience. This change develops around a center and eventually forms an organic unity. The independence of the self does not mean that it is closed to other selves. It is wrong to see the essence of the self as an unchanging substance or to conceive it as an unstable flow. According to Iqbal, the real personality of man is not a "thing" but an "action", a "sum of behaviors". The human being at the highest level of self-consciousness is the only being among all creatures capable of consciously participating in the creative life of the Creator.
Muhammad Iqbal, the self, Absolute Self, existence, continu-ous creation, finite, infinite.
Copyright (c) 2022 İlyas Altuner (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Relationship between Faith, Reason, and Will in Augustine
Faith has a great place in the epistemology of Augustine, who adopted the phrase “you will not understand unless you believe (nisi credideritis, non intellegetis).” This situation has led to the comments by the philosophers that reason is insufficient or has no importance in Augustine, but according to Augustine, reaching the truth is only possible with the working of reason and belief together, and it cannot happen without any of them. The rational part of the soul (animus), which is at the top of it, is like a door to God, but faith is essential for this to be possible. According to Augustine, the reason why faith is necessary for the realization of divine illumination, which is the only way to reach the truth, is that the will, polluted by original sin, hinders the mind, and that which will enable the mind to grasp all mysteries is the purification of the will by faith. In this study, why Augustine used faith together with reason will be examined in terms of the relationship between divine illumination and the will.
Copyright (c) 2022 Özden Özkaya Demirhan (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
George Edward Moore on the Indefinability of Good
“Good” is the central concept in George Edward Moore’s value theory. Moore, who has an influential work on the indefinability of “good” in moral philosophy, published a book in 1903 titled Principia Ethica, affirming that the most fundamental question in all Ethics is how “good” is to be defined. For Moore, it is essential to determine the appropriate subject of ethics in a precise sense as the concept of “good”. In Principia Ethica, Moore argues that people make mistakes when defining the “good”. According to Moore’s philosophy, “good” makes value prediction possible because it is a non-natural and unique concept. Despite the many theoretical debates among philosophers about the definability of the term good, this article critically examines the “open question argument” and the “naturalistic fallacy” that Moore's rational analysis leads to the conclusion that “good is indefinable”.
orge Edward Moore, ethics, good, indefinability, naturalistic fallacy.
Copyright (c) 2022 Nazan Yeşilkaya (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
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Copyright (c) 2023 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Florence and Baghdad: Renaissance Art and Arab Science by H. Belting
Hans Belting, Florence and Baghdad: Renaissance Art and Arab Science, trans. Deborah Lucas Schneider (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 303 pp.
Copyright (c) 2023 Merve Nur Türksever Sezer (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Covering appears to be a socio-cultural necessity for human beings. Covering styles are revealed in different forms in men and women. Covering the body in human history manifests itself as a result of necessity in social relations. The first human in the sources is the veiling problem of Prophet Adam and his wife Eve begins with their realization of their own lack of veiling. In this sense, veiling, apart from an innate necessity, is a need that arises with awareness and is related to being human. Max Scheler explains the feeling of shame as a feeling that arises as a result of the person who is between the lowest of creation and the highest of all first realizing it when the veil falls. From this point of view, veiling or veiling is a phenomenon needed as a requirement of Scheler's sense of shame, with the meanings of “to put a curtain between oneself and the other/somebody else, to hide inside or behind something”, on the other hand, David Le Breton's of individuals revealing their own skin to society. It gains meaning as a message that is wanted to be given by the individual in social relations, seeing it as a limit.
Hijab, phenomenology, Max Scheler, David le Breton, veiling, shame, skin, body.
Copyright (c) 2023 Nurefşan Bulut Uslu (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Moral Dimension of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has an important role in the advancement of personal development. Undoubtedly, thanks to critical thinking, individuals can use their abilities better and become active in society. This system of thinking can have positive results on students, especially in the development of cognitive and creative thinking in education. Critical thinking, education as well as philosophy, literature, cinema, history, geography, biology, health, etc. has a relationship with disciplines. Critical thinking plays an important role in understanding disciplines and learning basic concepts. The most basic purpose of critical thinking is to stick to moral attitudes. When criticizing in a discussion environment, it is important to stick to moral principles rather than the subject of the problem being discussed. In this context, the conceptual framework of critical thinking will be discussed. Critical thinking; its relationship with philosophy, education, literature, art, and other sciences will be examined. Finally, the moral dimension of critical thinking and the principles to be followed will be mentioned while criticizing will be mentioned.
Thought, critical thinking, ethics, moral dimension, moral principles.
Copyright (c) 2023 Mehmet Aydın (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Frames of Thought: Durkheim's Concepts Instead of Kant's A Priori Categories
It is a problem in philosophy how the mind understands nature. How the results of observations come together in a meaningful form. Kant suggests a priori categories for this problem. According to him in the absence of the categories, the objects and phenomena that we perceive are in a relatively independent heap. A priori categories bring those independent pieces of observation together in an organized and meaningful form. Durkheim accepts Kant’s approach to a priori categories, however, he suggests a social origin for them. Durkheim’s attempt to explain the social origin of the categories results in differences in the number and content of a priori categories that Kant suggested. Durkheim’s suggestion changes into general concepts that act as social facts which lead to individuals’ thoughts.
A priori categories, concepts, Durkheim, Kant, thought.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ender Tuncer (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2023 Entelekya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Thomas Hill Green, Prolegomena to Ethics, ed. David O. Brink (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2004), 632 pp.
Copyright (c) 2023 Zehra Eroğlu (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Syncretism: The Mystery Behind Korean Miracle
South Korea created miracles out of a mess in the second half of the twentieth century. They have built an industrial production and export giant called Han Miracle and a democratic culture. They also began to create a cultural fever worldwide called the Korean Wave. However, what makes the Korean modernisation story unique compared to other development experiences in Asia is neither its industrial development nor its democratisation. The rapid Christianisation, especially the Protestantisation of Korea, which walks alongside modernisation, is what makes this story special. Catholics entered Korea first, but they failed due to various reasons. Then, a peasant movement called Tonghak, which is organised around a syncretic religion named Cheondogyo, began to rise. They even started a nationwide uprising and gained massive supporters, but they could not succeed in expanding aggressively after the Japanese occupation. The latest comers, the Protestants, eventually became the largest religious group in South Korea. The Protestants studied the Catholics’ failure and the Tonghak movement’s success well and created a syncretic folk religion that did not exclude local religious elements. This syncretism was the key to their mind-blowing success in South Korea.
South Korea, modernisation, Christianisation, Protestantisation, syncretism.
Copyright (c) 2023 Yasin Gurur Sev (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Heart-Centered Paths: A Comparative Study of Hesychasm and Sufism
The comparative analysis of Hesychasm in the late Byzantine Orthodox Church and Sufism in the Islamic tradition illuminates intriguing parallels and distinctions in their spiritual frameworks. Emphasizing the significance of spiritual experiences through prayer, Hesychasm, rooted in Orthodox spirituality, focuses on hesychia and the prayer of the heart. Sufism, within the Islamic tradition, centers on dhikr, the continuous remembrance of Allah. Despite shared teachings on the heart and continuous prayer, the traditions diverge in practices, such as the Jesus Prayer in Hesychasm and the invocation of Allah's name in Sufism, contributing to the rich tapestry of spiritual experiences. This comparative exploration offers nuanced insights into diverse ways spiritual seekers engage with the divine across cultures. Recognizing universal quests for connection with the transcendent, the analysis contributes to the broader dialogue on mysticism and spirituality. The discussions on divine light, knowledge of God, and transformative processes underscore shared themes, while differences in theological nuances highlight the unique paths individuals traverse in their spiritual journeys. Ultimately, both Hesychasm and Sufism emphasize the experiential dimension of spirituality, fostering profound encounters with the divine despite their theological and philosophical distinctions.
Hesychasm, sufism, theosis, fanā, prayer of heart.
Copyright (c) 2023 İsa Babur (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Issue of Demonstrativeness of the Five Syllogistical Arts in Peripatetic Logicians in Islam
In ancient philosophy, Logic was seen as the instrument and method of philosophy. However, sometimes detailed and profound discussions have been made about the demonstrativeness of philosophical sciences. Most philosophers have accepted that the mathematical sciences were especially demonstrative and likewise, most of the natural sciences are demonstrative for them. But can metaphysics be demonstrative or not? This is one of the fundamental issues around which the great debates were made in Islamic philosophy. While these issues are known to specialists in this field, we can hardly find studies and research that deal with this issue to a sufficient degree and precise discussions in our day, I mean the issue of demonstrativeness of art of demonstration, art of dialectic, art of sophistry, art of rhetoric and art of poetry. It is clear that the peripatetic philosophers did not write a separate book or treatise on the issue of the demonstrativeness of the logical arts, but we can claim that they believed that all these arts were demonstrative and that they were extracted/abstracted using the art of demonstration. We can come across important phrases and statements that prove this claim between the lines of the books that these philosophers wrote in the science of logic. And while Aristotle is the founder of the science of logic, then how is it to be understood that there are practical particular examples and some easy rules of these arts? According to their texts, we can say that they believed that the actual performance of these arts by their actors in materials by particular and practical actions differs from extracting their universal rules by abstracting them from their materials through theoretical and analytical research. For example, the poems of the great poets; Homer and al-Mutanabbi, are particular works in the matter of the art of poetry performed by poets. The books written by Aristotle and Ibn Rushd in the art of poetry contain universal rules extracted abstractly from the materials of their particular poems. As for understanding the demonstrativeness of the remaining four arts, it is easier, but how should we understand the demonstrativeness of the art of demonstration itself? It seems that the peripatetic logicians also distinguished between applying demonstrative inferences to significant materials and extracting the universal rules of the art of demonstration from these materials. These five logical arts are not particular and practical things, but they are philosophical, demonstrative, and analytical studies for the peripatetic logicians in Islam. In this paper, we will try to draw attention to the issue of the demonstrativeness of the five arts and to open a new discussion about it based on some important sentences and phrases expressed by al-Fārābī, Ibn Zur‘a, Ibn Sīnā, Ibn Bājja and Ibn Rushd between the lines in their books, which they wrote in the field of logic and within different and multiple contexts.
Copyright (c) 2023 Ali Tekin (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0